Germanic languages

Germanic
Teutonic
Geographic
distribution:
In northern, western and central Europe
Linguistic Classification: Indo-European
 Germanic
Subdivisions:
Number of native speakers: ~559 million
ISO 639-2 and 639-5: gem

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The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE) language family. The common ancestor of all the languages in this branch is Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic peoples moving down from northern Europe in the second century BC, to settle in northern central Europe.

The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 309–400 million[1][2] and over 100 million[3] native speakers respectively. The group includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million[4] and Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers;[5] and the North Germanic languages including Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and Faroese with a combined total of about 20 million speakers.[6] The SIL Ethnologue lists 53 different Germanic languages.

Contents

Characteristics

Germanic languages possess several unique features, such as the following:

  1. The leveling of the Indo-European verbal system of tense and aspect into the present tense and the past tense (also called the preterite)
  2. A large class of verbs that use a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of vowel alternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense; these are called the Germanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are the Germanic strong verbs
  3. The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on the type of determiner they were preceded by)
  4. The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law (which continued in German in a second shift known as the High German consonant shift)
  5. Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants appear in almost all Germanic languages; see Germanic substrate hypothesis
  6. The sound change known as Verner's Law, which left a trace of Indo-European accent variations in voicing variations in fricatives
  7. The shifting of word stress onto word stems and later on the first syllable of the word (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them)

Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as Icelandic, and to a lesser extent German, have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans, have moved toward a largely analytic type.

Another characteristic of Germanic languages is verb second (V2) word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history) which has more or less replaced the structure with fixed Subject Verb Object word order.

Writing

The earliest evidence of Germanic languages comes from names recorded in the first century by Tacitus (especially from his work Germania), but the earliest Germanic writing occurs in a single instance in the second century BC on the Negau helmet.[7] From roughly the second century AD, certain speakers of early Germanic varieties developed the Elder Futhark, an early form of the Runic alphabet. Early runic inscriptions also are largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the fourth century.[8] Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in addition to their native Germanic varieties began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters. However, throughout the Viking Age, Runic alphabets remained in common use in Scandinavia. In addition to the standard Latin alphabet, many Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including umlauts, the ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ü, Ö, Ð, Ȝ, and the Latinized runes Þ and Ƿ. In print, German used to be prevalently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher) up until the 1940s (though see Antiqua–Fraktur dispute), whereas Kurrent and since the early 20th century Sütterlin was used for German handwriting.

History

The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC – AD 1 (after the Penguin Atlas of World History 1988):       Settlements before 750 BC       New settlements by 500 BC       New settlements by 250 BC       New settlements by AD 1

All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical Proto-Germanic, united by subjection to the sound shifts of Grimm's law and Verner's law. These probably took place during the Pre-Roman Iron Age of Northern Europe from ca. 500 BC, but other common innovations separating Germanic from Proto-Indo European suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the Nordic Bronze Age.

From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic varieties are divided into three groups, West, East, and North Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration period, so that some individual varieties are difficult to classify.

The sixth century Lombardic language for instance, may be a variety originally either Northern or Eastern, before being assimilated by West Germanic as the Lombards settled at the Elbe. The Western group would have formed in the late Jastorf culture, the Eastern group may be derived from the first century variety of Gotland (see Old Gutnish), leaving southern Sweden as the original location of the Northern group. The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the fourth century Gothic translation of the New Testament by Ulfilas. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in Old Dutch or Old Frankish (fifth century), Old High German (scattered words and sentences sixth century, coherent texts ninth century) and Old English (coherent texts tenth century). North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as Proto-Norse, until it evolves into Old Norse by about 800.

Longer runic inscriptions survive from the eighth and ninth centuries (Eggjum stone, Rök stone), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the twelfth century (Íslendingabók), and some skaldic poetry held to date back to as early as the ninth century.

West Germanic languages      Dutch (Low Franconian, West Germanic)      Low German (West Germanic)      Central German (High German, West Germanic)      Upper German (High German, West Germanic)      English (Anglo-Frisian, West Germanic)      Frisian (Anglo-Frisian, West Germanic) North Germanic languages      East Scandinavian      West Scandinavian      Line dividing the North and West Germanic languages

By about the tenth century, the varieties had diverged enough to make inter-comprehensibility difficult. The linguistic contact of the Viking settlers of the Danelaw with the Anglo-Saxons left traces in the English language, and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in Middle English from the twelfth century.

The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The Burgundians, Goths, and Vandals became linguistically assimilated by their respective neighbors by about the seventh century, with only Crimean Gothic lingering on until the eighteenth century.

During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand, and by the High German consonant shift on the continent on the other, resulting in Upper German and Low Saxon, with graded intermediate Central German varieties. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North and, although both extremes are considered German, they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southernmost varieties had completed the second sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant shift.

The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the peninsular languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.

Classification

Note that divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent varieties being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.

Diachronic

The table below shows the succession of the significant historical stages of each language (vertically), and their approximate groupings in subfamilies (horizontally). Horizontal sequence within each group does not imply a measure of greater or lesser similarity.

Iron Age
500 BC–AD 200
Proto-Germanic
East Germanic West Germanic North Germanic
Irminonic Ingvaeonic Istvaeonic
Primitive High German Primitive Saxon Anglo-Frisian Primitive Frankish
Migration Period
AD 200–700
Gothic, Vandalic, Burgundian Old High German, Lombardic1 Old Saxon Old Frisian Old English Old Frankish Proto-Norse
Early Middle Ages
700–1100
Old Dutch Runic Old West Norse Runic Old East Norse
Middle Ages
1100–1350
Middle High German Middle Low German Early Middle English Middle Dutch Old Icelandic Old Norwegian6 Early Old Danish Early Old Swedish Early Old Gutnish
Late Middle Ages2
1350–1500
Early New High German Late Middle English Early Scots3 Late Old Icelandic Old Faroese Old Norn Middle Norwegian Late Old Danish Late Old Swedish Late Old Gutnish
Early Modern Age
1500–1700
Crimean Gothic Middle Frisian Early Modern English Middle Scots Early Modern Dutch Icelandic Faroese Norn Norwegian Danish Swedish Gutnish
Modern Age
1700 to present
all extinct High German varieties Low Saxon varieties Frisian varieties English varieties Modern Scots varieties Dutch varieties extinct4 extinct5

Contemporary

Germanic languages

All living Germanic languages belong either to the West Germanic or to the North Germanic branch. The West Germanic group is the larger by far, further subdivided into Anglo-Frisian on one hand, and Continental West Germanic on the other. Anglo-Frisian notably includes English and all its variants, while Continental West Germanic includes German (standard register and dialects) as well as Dutch (standard register and dialects).

Linguistic developments

The subgroupings of the Germanic languages are defined by shared innovations. It is important to distinguish innovations from cases of linguistic conservatism. That is, if two languages in a family share a characteristic that is not observed in a third language, that is evidence of common ancestry of the two languages only if the characteristic is an innovation compared to the family's proto-language.

The following innovations are common to the Northwest Germanic languages (all but Gothic):

The following innovations are also common to the Northwest Germanic languages, but represent areal changes:

The following innovations are common to the West Germanic languages:

The following innovations are common to the Ingvaeonic subgroup of the West Germanic languages:

The following innovations are common to the Anglo-Frisian subgroup of the Ingvaeonic languages:

Vocabulary comparison

Several of the terms in the table below have had semantic drift. For example, the form Sterben and other terms for die are cognates with the English word starve. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a non-Germanic source (ounce and its cognates from Latin).

English Scots West Frisian Afrikaans Dutch Dutch (Limburgish) Low German (North Saxon) Low German (Groningen) Middle German (Luxemburgish) German Gothic Icelandic Faroese Swedish Danish Norwegian (Bokmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk)
apple aiple apel appel appel appel Appel Abbel Apel Apfel aplus epli epli[15] äpple æble eple eple
board buird board bord bord bórdj/telleur Boord Bred Briet Brett[16] baúrd borð borð bord bord bord bord
beech beech boeke beuk beuk beuk Boeoek / Böök Beukenboom Bich Buche bōka[17]/-bagms bók bók(artræ) bok bøg bøk bok / bøk
book beuk boek boek boek book Book Bouk Buch Buch bōka bók bók bok bog bok bok
breast breest boarst bors borst boors Bost Bôrst Broscht Brust brusts brjóst bróst / bringa bröst bryst bryst bryst
brown broun brún bruin bruin broen bruun broen brong braun bruns brúnn brúnur brun brun brun brun
day day dei dag dag daag Dag Dag Do Tag dags dagur dagur dag dag dag dag
dead deid dea dood dood doed doot dood dout tot dauþs dauður deyður död død død daud
die (starve) dee stjerre sterf sterven stèrve starven / döen staarven stierwen sterben diwan deyja doyggja døy / starva
enough eneuch genôch genoeg genoeg genóg noog genog genuch genug ganōhs nóg nóg/nógmikið nog nok nok nok
finger finger finger vinger vinger veenger Finger Vinger Fanger Finger figgrs fingur fingur finger finger finger finger
give gie jaan gee geven geve geven geven ginn geben giban gefa geva ge / giva give gi gje(va)
glass gless glês glas glas glaas Glas Glas Glas Glas - glas glas glas glas glass glas
gold gowd goud goud goud goud / góldj Gold Gold - Gold gulþ gull gull guld / gull guld gull gull
good guid gód goed goed good goot goud gutt gut gōþ(is) góð góð(ur) / gott god god god god
hand haund hân hand hand hand Hand Haand Hand Hand handus hönd hond hand hånd hånd hand
head heid holle hoof[18] / kop[19] hoofd / kop[19] kop Kopp[19] Heufd / Kop[19] Kopp Haupt / Kopf[19] háubiþ höfuð høvd / høvur huvud hoved hode hovud
high heich heech hoog hoog hoeg hoog hoog / höch héich hoch háuh hár høg / ur hög høj høy / høg høg
home hame hiem heim[20] / tuis[21] heim[20] / thuis[21] thoes Tohuus Thoes[21] Heem Heim háimōþ heim heim hem hjem hjem / heim heim
hook / crook heuk hoek haak hoek haok Haak Hoak Krop / Kramp Haken kramppa krókur krókur / ongul hake / krok hage / krog hake / krok hake / krok[22]
house hoose hûs huis huis hoes Huus Hoes Haus Haus hūs hús hús hus hus hus hus
many mony mannich / mennich menige menig minnig Mennig Ìnde - Manch manags margir mangir / nógvir många mange mange mange
moon muin moanne maan maan maon Maan Moan Mound Mond mēna máni / tungl máni måne måne måne måne
night nicht nacht nag nacht nach Nach / Nacht Nacht Nuecht Nacht nótt nótt nátt natt nat natt natt
no (nay) nae nee nee nee(n) nei nee nee / nai nee(n) nee / nein / nö nei nei nej / nä nej nei nei
old (but: elder, eldest) auld âld oud oud aajt (old) / gammel (decayed) oolt / gammelig old / olleg aalt alt sineigs gamall (but: eldri, elstur) / aldinn gamal (but: eldri, elstur) gammal (but: äldre, äldst) gammel (but: ældre, ældst) gammel (but: eldre, eldst) gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst)
one ane ien een een ein een aine een eins áins einn ein en en en ein
ounce unce ûns ons ons óns Ons Onze - Unze unkja únsa únsa uns unse unse unse / unsa
snow snaw snie sneeu sneeuw sjnie Snee Snij / Snèj Schlue Schnee snáiws snjór kavi / snjógvur snö sne snø snø
stone stane stien steen steen stein Steen Stain Steen Stein stáins steinn steinur sten sten stein stein
that that dat daardie / dit dat / die dat dat / dit dat / dij dat das þata það tað det det det det
two / twain twa twa twee twee twie twee twij / twèje zoo / zwou / zwéin zwei/zwo twái tveir / tvær / tvö tveir / tvey / tvær / tvá två to to to[23]
who wha wa wie wie wee wokeen wel wien wer Ƕas / hwas hver hvør vem hvem hvem kven
worm wirm wjirm wurm worm weurm Worm Wörm Wuerm Wurm maþa maðkur / ormur maðkur / ormur mask / orm [24] orm makk / mark / orm  [24] makk/mark/orm[24]
English Scots West Frisian Afrikaans Dutch Dutch (Limburgish) Low German (North Saxon) Low German (Groningen) Middle German (Luxemburgish) German Gothic Icelandic Faroese Swedish Danish Norwegian (Bokmål) Norwegian (Nynorsk)

See also

Notes

  1. "Ethnologue on English". Ethnologue.com. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 
  2. Curtis, Andy. Color, Race, And English Language Teaching: Shades of Meaning. 2006, page 192.
  3. SIL Ethnologue (2006). 95 million speakers of Standard German; 95 million including Middle and Upper German dialects; 120 million including Low Saxon and Yiddish.
  4. Dutch, University College London
  5. "Ethnologue on Afrikaans". Ethnologue.com. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=afr. Retrieved 2010-08-28. 
  6. Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In The Comparative Syntax Handbook, eds Guglielmo Cinque and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Excerpt at Durham University.
  7. Malcolm Todd (1992). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. 
  8. Cercignani, Fausto, The Elaboration of the Gothic Alphabet and Orthography, in «Indogermanische Forschungen», 93, 1988, pp. 168-185.
  9. Aitken, A. J. and McArthur, T. Eds. (1979) Languages of Scotland. Edinburgh,Chambers. p. 87
  10. McClure (1991) in The Cambridge History of the English Language Vol. 5. p. 23.
  11. Robinson M. (ed.) (1985) the "Concise Scots Dictionary, Chambers, Edinburgh. p. xiii
  12. Dareau M., Pike l. and Watson, H (eds) (2002) "A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue" Vol. XII, Oxford University Press. p. xxxiv
  13. See also Cercignani, Fausto, The Reduplicating Syllable and Internal Open Juncture in Gothic, in «Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung», 93/1, 1979, pp. 126-132.
  14. But see Cercignani, Fausto, Indo-European ē in Germanic, in «Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung», 86/1, 1972, pp. 104-110.
  15. The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
  16. Brett is used in the South, Bord is used additionally in the North
  17. Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic.
  18. Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city).
  19. 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 From an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".
  20. 20.0 20.1 Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness).
  21. 21.0 21.1 21.2 From a compound phrase akin to "to house"
  22. ongel is also used for fishing hook.
  23. Dialectally tvo / två / tvei (m) / tvæ (f) / tvau (n).
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 The cognate orm usually means 'snake'.

External links